On the basis that קדשׁ refers in the first place to Yhwh, it is a simple step to use the term to refer to those things which belong to Yhwh uniquely, even though this is not necessarily a permanent state. Holiness expresses Israel’s distinction from other peoples (cf. Exod. 33:16). Israel is declared holy at the point where it makes a covenant with Yhwh (Exod. 19:6); but this holiness is related to the nation living faithfully for him within the unique relationship of covenant. The alternative is